13. Religious Movements and Philosophy (Ancient & Medieval)

CORE Key Points at a Glance

1. 1

   Six Orthodox and Three Heterodox Schools

   • Astika (Vedic-accepting): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta
   • Nastika (Vedic-rejecting): Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka
   • All six Astika schools accept the authority of the Vedas
   • This six-plus-three taxonomy was tested directly in RPSC 2021 (2 marks)
2. 2

   Gautama Buddha — Four Sacred Sites

   • Born: Lumbini, Nepal (c. 563 BCE)
   • Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya, under a peepal tree
   • First sermon (Dhammachakkapavattana Sutta): Sarnath
   • Parinirvana (death): Kushinagar (c. 483 BCE)
3. 3

   Buddha's Core Teachings

   • Four Noble Truths: Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga
   • Eightfold Path: Right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration
   • Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada): all phenomena arise in dependence on conditions
   • These three form the doctrinal foundation of all Buddhist schools
4. 4

   Mahavira and Jain Philosophy

   • Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), 24th Tirthankara, born at Kundagrama (Vaishali, Bihar)
   • Three Jewels: Samyak Darshana (right faith), Samyak Jnana (right knowledge), Samyak Charitra (right conduct)
   • Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavrata): ahimsa, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession
   • Mahavira added celibacy to Parshvanatha's original four vows
5. 5

   Buddhism — Hinayana vs Mahayana Split

   • Split occurred at the Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka (c. 100 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir
   • Hinayana (Theravada): conservative, individual liberation, Pali canon, spread to Sri Lanka and SE Asia
   • Mahayana: Bodhisattva ideal, Sanskrit texts, spread to East Asia (Tibet, China, Japan)
   • A third school, Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism), emerged in NE India in the 5th–7th century CE
6. 6

   Shankaracharya and Advaita Vedanta

   • Shankaracharya (c. 788–820 CE) founded the Advaita Vedanta school
   • Core teaching: Brahman alone is real; Atman is identical with Brahman; perceived world is maya (illusion)
   • Established four Mathas: Sringeri (south), Dvarka (west), Puri (east), Badrinath (north)
   • Defeated Buddhist influence in philosophical debates across India
7. 7

   Ramanuja and Madhva — Vedanta Sub-schools

   • Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137 CE) propounded Vishishtadvaita — "qualified non-dualism"
   • Vishishtadvaita: Brahman is real; individual souls and matter are real parts of Brahman, not illusory
   • Madhva (c. 1238–1317 CE) propounded Dvaita — pure dualism
   • Dvaita: God (Vishnu) and individual souls are eternally distinct — never identical
8. 8

   Bhakti Movement — Key Features

   • Pan-India devotional revolution spanning the 6th–17th century
   • Democratised access to God: bypassed caste hierarchies and priestly monopolies
   • Used vernacular languages; emphasised personal devotion over ritual
   • Key strands: Saiva (Nayanmars, Tamil Nadu), Vaishnava (Alvars, Tamil Nadu; Varkari, Maharashtra), Nirguna (Kabir, Nanak)
9. 9

   Sufism in India — Key Orders

   • Islamic mysticism emphasising love of God, inner purification, and unity of being
   • Entered India in the 11th–12th centuries with the Chishti order
   • Chishti: Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer (c. 1143–1236); emphasis on love and service to poor
   • Suhrawardi (Punjab/Sindh; more orthodox); Qadiri; Naqshbandi — other major orders
   • RPSC directly tested the Suhrawardi silsilah in 2021
10. 10

    Alvars and Nayanmars — Tamil Bhakti

    • Both flourished in Tamil Nadu during the 6th–9th century CE
    • 12 Alvars (Vaishnava): composed Nalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns
    • 63 Nayanmars (Shaivite): composed Tevaram (first 7 books of Tirumurai)
    • RPSC tested the Alvars and Nayanmars directly in 2023 (5 marks)
11. 11

    Kabir — Nirguna Bhakti

    • Weaver-saint of Varanasi (c. 1440–1518); challenged both Hindu ritualism and Islamic orthodoxy
    • Preached Nirguna Bhakti — devotion to a formless God — bridging the Hindu-Muslim divide
    • Dohas (couplets) composed in Awadhi-Brajbhasha appear in the Adi Granth (Sikh scripture) and the Bijak (Kabir Panthis)
    • His teachings rejected caste as spiritually meaningless
12. 12

    Amir Khusrau — Hindu-Islamic Cultural Synthesis

    • Poet and musician (1253–1325) at the Delhi Sultanate courts; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya (Chishti order)
    • Credited with developing khayal (classical music form) and qawwali (devotional music)
    • Also credited with possibly developing the sitar and tabla
    • Represents India's most important musical synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions