Topic 13: Religious Movements & Philosophy

Study Material

Paper Paper I

Unit 1

1. Six Orthodox and Three Heterodox Schools - Astika (Vedic-accepting): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta - Nastika (Vedic-rejecting): Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka - All six Astika schools accept the authority of the Vedas - This six-plus-three taxonomy was tested directly in RPSC 2021 (2 marks)
2. Gautama Buddha — Four Sacred Sites - Born: Lumbini, Nepal (c. 563 BCE) - Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya, under a peepal tree - First sermon (Dhammachakkapavattana Sutta): Sarnath - Parinirvana (death): Kushinagar (c. 483 BCE)
3. Buddha's Core Teachings - Four Noble Truths: Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga - Eightfold Path: Right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration - Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada): all phenomena arise in dependence on conditions - These three form the doctrinal foundation of all Buddhist schools
4. Mahavira and Jain Philosophy - Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), 24th Tirthankara, born at Kundagrama (Vaishali, Bihar) - Three Jewels: Samyak Darshana (right faith), Samyak Jnana (right knowledge), Samyak Charitra (right conduct) - Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavrata): ahimsa, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession - Mahavira added celibacy to Parshvanatha's original four vows
5. Buddhism — Hinayana vs Mahayana Split - Split occurred at the Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka (c. 100 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir - Hinayana (Theravada): conservative, individual liberation, Pali canon, spread to Sri Lanka and SE Asia - Mahayana: Bodhisattva ideal, Sanskrit texts, spread to East Asia (Tibet, China, Japan) - A third school, Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism), emerged in NE India in the 5th–7th century CE
6. Shankaracharya and Advaita Vedanta - Shankaracharya (c. 788–820 CE) founded the Advaita Vedanta school - Core teaching: Brahman alone is real; Atman is identical with Brahman; perceived world is maya (illusion) - Established four Mathas: Sringeri (south), Dvarka (west), Puri (east), Badrinath (north) - Defeated Buddhist influence in philosophical debates across India
7. Ramanuja and Madhva — Vedanta Sub-schools - Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137 CE) propounded Vishishtadvaita — "qualified non-dualism" - Vishishtadvaita: Brahman is real; individual souls and matter are real parts of Brahman, not illusory - Madhva (c. 1238–1317 CE) propounded Dvaita — pure dualism - Dvaita: God (Vishnu) and individual souls are eternally distinct — never identical
8. Bhakti Movement — Key Features - Pan-India devotional revolution spanning the 6th–17th century - Democratised access to God: bypassed caste hierarchies and priestly monopolies - Used vernacular languages; emphasised personal devotion over ritual - Key strands: Saiva (Nayanmars, Tamil Nadu), Vaishnava (Alvars, Tamil Nadu; Varkari, Maharashtra), Nirguna (Kabir, Nanak)
9. Sufism in India — Key Orders - Islamic mysticism emphasising love of God, inner purification, and unity of being - Entered India in the 11th–12th centuries with the Chishti order - Chishti: Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer (c. 1143–1236); emphasis on love and service to poor - Suhrawardi (Punjab/Sindh; more orthodox); Qadiri; Naqshbandi — other major orders - RPSC directly tested the Suhrawardi silsilah in 2021
10. Alvars and Nayanmars — Tamil Bhakti - Both flourished in Tamil Nadu during the 6th–9th century CE - 12 Alvars (Vaishnava): composed Nalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns - 63 Nayanmars (Shaivite): composed Tevaram (first 7 books of Tirumurai) - RPSC tested the Alvars and Nayanmars directly in 2023 (5 marks)
11. Kabir — Nirguna Bhakti - Weaver-saint of Varanasi (c. 1440–1518); challenged both Hindu ritualism and Islamic orthodoxy - Preached Nirguna Bhakti — devotion to a formless God — bridging the Hindu-Muslim divide - Dohas (couplets) composed in Awadhi-Brajbhasha appear in the Adi Granth (Sikh scripture) and the Bijak (Kabir Panthis) - His teachings rejected caste as spiritually meaningless
12. Amir Khusrau — Hindu-Islamic Cultural Synthesis - Poet and musician (1253–1325) at the Delhi Sultanate courts; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya (Chishti order) - Credited with developing khayal (classical music form) and qawwali (devotional music) - Also credited with possibly developing the sitar and tabla - Represents India's most important musical synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions

Key facts

Six Orthodox and Three Heterodox Schools — Astika (Vedic-accepting): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta
Gautama Buddha — Four Sacred Sites — Born: Lumbini, Nepal (c. 563 BCE) — Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya, under a peepal tree
Mahavira and Jain Philosophy — Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), 24th Tirthankara, born at Kundagrama (Vaishali, Bihar)
Buddhism — Hinayana vs Mahayana Split — Split occurred at the Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka (c. 100 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir
Shankaracharya and Advaita Vedanta — Shankaracharya (c. 788–820 CE) founded the Advaita Vedanta school

Key Points at a Glance

1
Six Orthodox and Three Heterodox Schools
- Astika (Vedic-accepting): Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta
- Nastika (Vedic-rejecting): Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka
- All six Astika schools accept the authority of the Vedas
- This six-plus-three taxonomy was tested directly in RPSC 2021 (2 marks)
2
Gautama Buddha — Four Sacred Sites
- Born: Lumbini, Nepal (c. 563 BCE)
- Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya, under a peepal tree
- First sermon (Dhammachakkapavattana Sutta): Sarnath
- Parinirvana (death): Kushinagar (c. 483 BCE)
3
Buddha's Core Teachings
- Four Noble Truths: Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga
- Eightfold Path: Right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration
- Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada): all phenomena arise in dependence on conditions
- These three form the doctrinal foundation of all Buddhist schools
4
Mahavira and Jain Philosophy
- Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), 24th Tirthankara, born at Kundagrama (Vaishali, Bihar)
- Three Jewels: Samyak Darshana (right faith), Samyak Jnana (right knowledge), Samyak Charitra (right conduct)
- Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavrata): ahimsa, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession
- Mahavira added celibacy to Parshvanatha's original four vows
5
Buddhism — Hinayana vs Mahayana Split
- Split occurred at the Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka (c. 100 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir
- Hinayana (Theravada): conservative, individual liberation, Pali canon, spread to Sri Lanka and SE Asia
- Mahayana: Bodhisattva ideal, Sanskrit texts, spread to East Asia (Tibet, China, Japan)
- A third school, Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism), emerged in NE India in the 5th–7th century CE
6
Shankaracharya and Advaita Vedanta
- Shankaracharya (c. 788–820 CE) founded the Advaita Vedanta school
- Core teaching: Brahman alone is real; Atman is identical with Brahman; perceived world is maya (illusion)
- Established four Mathas: Sringeri (south), Dvarka (west), Puri (east), Badrinath (north)
- Defeated Buddhist influence in philosophical debates across India
7
Ramanuja and Madhva — Vedanta Sub-schools
- Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137 CE) propounded Vishishtadvaita — "qualified non-dualism"
- Vishishtadvaita: Brahman is real; individual souls and matter are real parts of Brahman, not illusory
- Madhva (c. 1238–1317 CE) propounded Dvaita — pure dualism
- Dvaita: God (Vishnu) and individual souls are eternally distinct — never identical
8
Bhakti Movement — Key Features
- Pan-India devotional revolution spanning the 6th–17th century
- Democratised access to God: bypassed caste hierarchies and priestly monopolies
- Used vernacular languages; emphasised personal devotion over ritual
- Key strands: Saiva (Nayanmars, Tamil Nadu), Vaishnava (Alvars, Tamil Nadu; Varkari, Maharashtra), Nirguna (Kabir, Nanak)
9
Sufism in India — Key Orders
- Islamic mysticism emphasising love of God, inner purification, and unity of being
- Entered India in the 11th–12th centuries with the Chishti order
- Chishti: Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer (c. 1143–1236); emphasis on love and service to poor
- Suhrawardi (Punjab/Sindh; more orthodox); Qadiri; Naqshbandi — other major orders
- RPSC directly tested the Suhrawardi silsilah in 2021
10
Alvars and Nayanmars — Tamil Bhakti
- Both flourished in Tamil Nadu during the 6th–9th century CE
- 12 Alvars (Vaishnava): composed Nalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns
- 63 Nayanmars (Shaivite): composed Tevaram (first 7 books of Tirumurai)
- RPSC tested the Alvars and Nayanmars directly in 2023 (5 marks)
11
Kabir — Nirguna Bhakti
- Weaver-saint of Varanasi (c. 1440–1518); challenged both Hindu ritualism and Islamic orthodoxy
- Preached Nirguna Bhakti — devotion to a formless God — bridging the Hindu-Muslim divide
- Dohas (couplets) composed in Awadhi-Brajbhasha appear in the Adi Granth (Sikh scripture) and the Bijak (Kabir Panthis)
- His teachings rejected caste as spiritually meaningless
12
Amir Khusrau — Hindu-Islamic Cultural Synthesis
- Poet and musician (1253–1325) at the Delhi Sultanate courts; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya (Chishti order)
- Credited with developing khayal (classical music form) and qawwali (devotional music)
- Also credited with possibly developing the sitar and tabla
- Represents India's most important musical synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions

Why does religious philosophy matter for RPSC Mains?

Religious philosophy matters for RPSC Mains because it is a recurring Paper I theme that links India's intellectual history with art, literature, architecture, music and social change across ancient and medieval India.

Overview

Religious movements and philosophy constitute one of India's most enduring contributions to world civilisation. From the Vedic philosophical tradition (c. 1000–500 BCE) to the devotional revolution of the Bhakti and Sufi movements (6th–17th century CE), India produced a continuous tradition of spiritual inquiry. This tradition shaped not just religion but art, literature, architecture, music, and social organisation.

The RPSC Mains syllabus places Religious Movements and religious philosophy in Ancient and Medieval India in Paper I, Unit I, Part B, and Paper I carries 200 marks with a 3-hour duration. That makes the topic both syllabus-explicit and answer-writing relevant rather than a background culture chapter.

PYQ Significance

This topic has appeared in every year of RPSC Mains PYQ analysis — the most consistent single topic in Paper I Unit I.

2021: A 2-mark question tested the four orthodox schools; another tested the Suhrawardi Sufi order
2023: A 5-mark question examined the Nayanmars and Alwar bhakti saints
The topic spans 2,500 years — questions can target any specific node: a philosopher, a religious school, a Sufi order, or a Bhakti saint

Exam Strategy

For 5-mark questions: Prepare 3–4 specific named examples with dates and locations.

For 10-mark questions: Use the comparative framework: background → core philosophy → social impact → literary/artistic legacy.

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PREDICTED Predicted RAS Questions

Based on PYQ trends and 2026 syllabus analysis

1 5M Name and briefly explain the six orthodox schools (Astika Darshanas) of Indian philosophy. 5 marks · 50 words

Model Answer

The six Astika schools accept Vedic authority: Nyaya (Gautama) — logic and 4 valid knowledge sources; Vaisheshika (Kanada) — atomic theory; Samkhya (Kapila) — Purusha-Prakriti dualism; Yoga (Patanjali) — 8-limbed practice path; Mimamsa (Jaimini) — Vedic ritual; Vedanta (Badarayana) — Brahman-Atman relationship. Three heterodox schools (Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka) reject Vedic authority.

~50 words • 5 marks