Communication: Models, Networks, Barriers, Electronic and Destructive Communication

Key Points at a Glance

1. 1

   Communication is the process of transferring information, meaning, or understanding from a sender to a receiver through a channel; Wilbur Schramm (1954) defined it as "the process of establishing a commonness or oneness of thought between a sender and receiver."

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   The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model (1949) — originally designed for telephone engineering — identifies: Information Source → Transmitter → Channel → Receiver → Destination, with Noise as interference at any point. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver introduced the concept of communication entropy (uncertainty).

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   Berlo's SMCR Model (1960) expands communication into four components: Source (communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, culture), Message (content, elements, treatment, structure, code), Channel (five senses — seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting), and Receiver (same dimensions as source).

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   Schramm's Interactive Model (1954) introduced Feedback as a key element — communication is a two-way process where both sender and receiver are simultaneously encoders and decoders, filtering messages through their Field of Experience.

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   Aristotle's Rhetorical Model (c. 350 BCE) — the oldest communication model — identifies three components: Ethos (credibility of the speaker), Pathos (emotional appeal), and Logos (logical argument). This model underlies modern public communication and political persuasion theory.

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   Formal Communication Networks: Wheel (all communication through central hub), Chain (linear, hierarchical), Circle (each communicates with adjacent members), All-channel (everyone communicates with everyone — maximum participation). Wheel = fastest for simple tasks; All-channel = most satisfying for complex, creative tasks.

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   Informal Communication (Grapevine): Unofficial information flow in organisations — named by Keith Davis (1953) who found grapevine information is 75–95% accurate but only selects certain facts; spreads fastest in anxiety situations; follows Cluster Chain, Single Strand, Gossip Chain, and Probability Chain patterns.

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   Barriers to Communication are classified as: (1) Physical — noise, distance, poor infrastructure; (2) Semantic — language differences, jargon, ambiguous words; (3) Psychological — selective perception, emotional state, prejudice, defensiveness; (4) Organisational — hierarchical distortion, information overload, filtering; (5) Cultural — different norms for directness, silence, eye contact.

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   Non-Verbal Communication constitutes the majority of face-to-face communication — Albert Mehrabian (1971) found that 7% of meaning is verbal, 38% is vocal (tone, pace), and 55% is non-verbal (body language, facial expressions). Edward Hall (1966) introduced Proxemics — the study of personal space and territory in communication.

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    Electronic Communication includes email, video conferencing, instant messaging, social media, e-governance portals, and AI-mediated communication. Benefits: speed, reach, documentation. Risks: information overload, digital divide, cybersecurity threats, loss of non-verbal cues, and asynchronous miscommunication.

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    Destructive Communication refers to communication patterns that damage relationships, inhibit performance, and create toxic environments. Key patterns include: Criticism (attacking character rather than behaviour), Contempt (disrespect, sarcasm, eye-rolling), Defensiveness (counter-attacking), and Stonewalling (withdrawal) — John Gottman's (1994) "Four Horsemen" of relationship destruction.

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    Active Listening — proposed as the antidote to communication barriers by Carl Rogers & Richard Farson (1957, "Active Listening") — involves giving full attention, withholding judgment, reflecting understanding, and asking clarifying questions. Research shows active listening increases comprehension by 25% and reduces conflict by 40% in organisational settings.