Key Points at a Glance

UPSC (Union Public Service Commission) is a constitutional body under Article 315 — its Chairman and members are appointed by the President; they can only be removed by the President on grounds mentioned in Article 317 (misbehaviour proved by Supreme Court inquiry); UPSC advises on recruitment, promotions, transfers, and disciplinary matters.

Election Commission of India (ECI) — Article 324 vests superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the ECI; it was a single-member body until 1989; the Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge (address by Parliament under Article 124); landmark 2023 amendment created a new selection committee (PM + Cabinet Minister + Leader of Opposition).

Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) — Article 148 creates the CAG as the "guardian of the public purse"; appointed by the President; removed only like a Supreme Court judge; audits accounts of Union and State governments; reports go to President/Governor who lays them before Parliament/Legislature. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar called CAG the "most important officer under the Constitution."

Finance Commission — Article 280 provides for a Finance Commission every 5 years; it recommends distribution of taxes between Centre and States (vertical devolution) and among States (horizontal devolution); 15th Finance Commission (2020–25) under N.K. Singh recommended 41% of divisible pool to states (down from 42% due to J&K reorganization).

Lokpal — A statutory anti-corruption ombudsman established under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013 (operative from 2019); can investigate PM, Union Ministers, MPs, Group A–D officers; consists of 1 chairperson + up to 8 members (half judicial); first chairperson: Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose (2019).

NITI Aayog — Replaced the Planning Commission in January 2015; NITI = National Institution for Transforming India; PM is ex-officio Chairman; CEO is a full-time officer of GoI rank; it is not a constitutional or statutory body — it operates through executive orders; differs from Planning Commission in having no financial devolution power and emphasising cooperative federalism and Bottom-Up planning.

State Public Service Commissions (SPSC) — Article 315 also mandates SPSCs; State PSC Chairman/members appointed by Governor and removed only by President (not Governor) on Supreme Court inquiry; Article 316 prescribes composition; Article 323 allows President to abolish or create joint PSCs for two or more states.

Model Code of Conduct (MCC) — The Election Commission enforces the MCC from the date of announcement of elections; it is not a statutory instrument but derives force from Article 324; it restricts ruling parties from announcing new schemes or using government machinery for campaigning — upheld by Supreme Court as "quasi-judicial" function of ECI.

The 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC, 2005–08) chaired by Veerappa Moily recommended a Lokpal at the Centre and Lokayuktas in all states within a defined time frame; it also recommended a National Ombudsman for public enterprises and a Citizens' Charter with legal backing.

CAG's three audit functions: (i) Regularity/Compliance audit — checks if funds spent per rules; (ii) Appropriation audit — verifies spending matches Parliament-approved grants; (iii) Performance/Efficiency audit — assesses whether public money achieved intended outcomes; reports of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) are based on CAG reports.

Finance Commission's mandate under Article 280: (a) distribution of net proceeds of taxes; (b) grants-in-aid to states under Article 275; (c) measures to augment States' Consolidated Fund to supplement panchayats and municipalities; (d) any other matter referred by the President — the 15th FC was additionally asked to evaluate the impact of natural disasters, disaster management funds, and performance-based incentives.