Climate change — international framework (UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris Agreement, COPs)

The international climate regime is best read as a layered system, not as isolated treaties.

• UNFCCC is the constitutional layer: adopted in 1992 and in force from 21 March 1994, it sets the objective of stabilising greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system. Its principles include equity, common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, precaution, sustainable development and cooperation.
• Kyoto Protocol is the first target layer: adopted at COP3 in 1997 and in force from 16 February 2005, it placed quantified emission limitation or reduction commitments mainly on developed Annex I parties. Developing countries such as India did not receive binding economy-wide reduction targets under Kyoto.
• Paris Agreement is the universal pledge-and-review layer: adopted at COP21 on 12 December 2015 and in force from 4 November 2016, it covers almost all parties through nationally determined contributions, transparency, global stocktake and a five-year ambition cycle.
• COPs are the operating layer: the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC meets annually to adopt decisions; CMP serves Kyoto parties; CMA serves Paris parties. UPSC often tests which meeting belongs to which instrument.
• India’s exam position: India supports climate action but repeatedly links ambition with equity, development space, technology transfer, low-cost climate finance and historical responsibility.
• Prelims trap: UNFCCC is a framework convention with broad commitments; Kyoto created legally binding quantified targets for developed parties; Paris is legally binding as a treaty but most mitigation numbers are nationally determined, not centrally imposed.