International Climate Negotiations: A Historical Overview

1.1 From Rio to Paris

1972 Stockholm Conference

The first global environmental conference led to the creation of UNEP (UN Environment Programme). The concept of "spaceship Earth" was popularised here, marking the start of international environmental cooperation.

1987 Brundtland Report ("Our Common Future")

This report defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This definition remains the authoritative global standard.

1992 Rio Earth Summit (UNCED)

• UNFCCC signed — framework treaty (no binding targets initially)
• CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) signed
• UNCED Agenda 21 — action plan for sustainable development
• Forest Principles — non-legally binding

1997 Kyoto Protocol (COP3, Kyoto, Japan)

The Kyoto Protocol established the first binding quantified emission reduction targets. Only Annex I (developed) countries had binding targets — the US, EU, Japan, etc. Three flexible mechanisms were created: Emissions Trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation.

The US never ratified the Kyoto Protocol; Canada withdrew; Trump withdrew US from Paris Agreement (2017) but Biden rejoined (2021). The Protocol's second commitment period ran from 2013–2020.

2009 Copenhagen Accord (COP15)

An attempt to create a post-Kyoto framework that failed to produce a legally binding agreement — only a political declaration resulted. The US-BASIC group (Brazil, South Africa, India, China) negotiated the Accord directly, bypassing the formal UNFCCC process. A pledge of $100 billion/year from developed to developing nations by 2020 was made but only partially fulfilled.

2015 Paris Agreement (COP21)

• Legally binding under international law; universal — applies to ALL parties (unlike Kyoto)
• NDC-based — "bottom-up" nationally determined targets (not top-down binding numbers)
• Ratchet mechanism: NDCs must be progressively more ambitious every 5 years
• Global Stocktake every 5 years to assess collective progress
• 1.5°C goal (aspirational) + well below 2°C (binding)
• Finance: Continued $100 billion/year commitment; new quantified goal for post-2025 (became NCQG)

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