Ancient Indian Philosophy — The Darshanas

2.1 The Six Orthodox (Astika) Schools

Indian philosophy classifies schools by their stance on the authority of the Vedas. The six "Astika" (Vedic-accepting) schools form three pairs, often studied together.

1. Nyaya

• Founded by Gautama (c. 2nd century BCE)
• The school of logic and epistemology
• Identifies four valid means of knowledge (pramanas): perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), testimony (shabda)
• Developed the syllogistic argument form used throughout Indian philosophy

2. Vaisheshika

• Founded by Kanada (c. 2nd century BCE)
• The atomistic school — one of the world's earliest atomic theories
• Postulates nine irreducible substances (padarthas): earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, mind
• Atoms of earth, water, fire, and air are the ultimate building blocks of matter

3. Samkhya

• Attributed to Kapila (c. 6th–7th century BCE); the oldest Indian philosophical system
• Dualist school: two ultimate realities — Purusha (pure consciousness/spirit, inactive, plural) and Prakriti (primal matter, active)
• All manifestation is Prakriti evolving through three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas) in the presence of Purusha
• Liberation = realising Purusha's separateness from Prakriti; closely allied with Yoga

4. Yoga

• Founded by Patanjali (c. 2nd century BCE–4th century CE)
• The school of disciplined practice
• Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (196 aphorisms) systematise the Ashtanga (eight-limbed) Yoga path: yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi
• Accepts Samkhya metaphysics while adding the concept of Ishvara (God as special Purusha)

5. Purva Mimamsa

• Founded by Jaimini (c. 4th century BCE)
• Examines the correct interpretation of Vedic rituals
• Argues the Vedas are eternal and self-valid (Apaurusheya); Vedic rituals produce unseen merit (apurva) leading to liberation
• One of the most influential schools for maintaining ritual orthodoxy

6. Vedanta / Uttara Mimamsa

• Based on Brahma Sutras of Badarayana (c. 200 BCE)
• Examines Brahman and the relationship between individual self and ultimate reality
• Divided into three major sub-schools:
  • Advaita (Shankaracharya, c. 788–820 CE): Non-dualism — Brahman alone is real; world is maya; Atman = Brahman
  • Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja, c. 1017–1137 CE): Qualified non-dualism — Brahman real; souls/matter are real parts of Brahman
  • Dvaita (Madhva, c. 1238–1317 CE): Pure dualism — God and souls permanently distinct

2.2 The Three Heterodox (Nastika) Schools

Buddhism: Core philosophy — see Section 3 below.

Jainism: Core philosophy — see Section 4 below.

Charvaka / Lokayata

The ancient Indian materialist-skeptic school (attributed to Brihaspati; systematised c. 6th century BCE). Key tenets:

• Only perception (pratyaksha) is a valid source of knowledge — inference, testimony, and revelation are rejected
• Only the material world exists; no soul, no afterlife, no God, no karma
• The four elements (earth, water, fire, air) constitute all reality; consciousness is a by-product of their combination
• Ethics: pursue pleasure and avoid pain — "eat, drink, and be merry" (yavat jivet sukham jivet)
• No surviving primary texts — known through critiques by opposing schools

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