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Key Points at a Glance
The institutions in this topic are India's exam-relevant accountability bodies: UPSC for recruitment, ECI for elections, CAG for audit, the Finance Commission for fiscal federalism, Lokpal for anti-corruption oversight, and NITI Aayog for policy planning.
UPSC (Union Public Service Commission) is a constitutional body under Article 315 - its Chairman and members are appointed by the President; they can only be removed by the President on grounds mentioned in Article 317 (misbehaviour proved by Supreme Court inquiry); UPSC advises on recruitment, promotions, transfers, and disciplinary matters.
Election Commission of India (ECI) - Article 324 vests superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the ECI; it was a single-member body until 1989; the Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge (address by Parliament under Article 124); the 2023 law created a new selection committee (PM + Cabinet Minister nominated by PM + Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha).
Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) - Article 148 creates the CAG as the "guardian of the public purse"; appointed by the President; removed only like a Supreme Court judge; audits accounts of Union and State governments; reports go to President/Governor who lays them before Parliament/Legislature. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar called CAG the "most important officer under the Constitution."
Finance Commission - Article 280 provides for a Finance Commission every 5 years; it recommends distribution of taxes between Centre and States (vertical devolution) and among States (horizontal devolution); the 15th Finance Commission under N.K. Singh recommended 41% of the divisible pool to States for the 2021-26 final award, after an interim 2020-21 report (down from 42% due to J&K reorganisation).
Lokpal - A statutory anti-corruption ombudsman established under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013; the Act received presidential assent on 1 January 2014 and the institution became operational in 2019 when the first Chairperson took oath; it can investigate the PM, Union Ministers, MPs, and Group A-D officers; consists of 1 Chairperson + up to 8 members (half judicial); first Chairperson: Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose, appointed on 19 March 2019 and sworn in on 23 March 2019.
NITI Aayog - Replaced the Planning Commission in January 2015; NITI = National Institution for Transforming India; PM is ex-officio Chairperson; CEO is a full-time officer of GoI rank; it is not a constitutional or statutory body - it operates through executive orders; differs from Planning Commission in having no financial devolution power and emphasising cooperative federalism and bottom-up planning.
State Public Service Commissions (SPSC) - Article 315 also provides for SPSCs; State PSC Chairman/members are appointed by the Governor and removed only by the President (not Governor) after the constitutional process involving Supreme Court inquiry; Article 316 deals with appointment and term; Article 315(2) provides for a Joint PSC for two or more states, created by Parliament on a request from the concerned state legislatures, while Article 323 deals with extension of PSC functions.
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) - The Election Commission enforces the MCC from the date of announcement of elections; it is not a statutory instrument but derives force from Article 324; it restricts ruling parties from announcing new schemes or using government machinery for campaigning - upheld by the Supreme Court as part of ECI's election-management authority.
The 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC, 2005-08) chaired by Veerappa Moily recommended a Lokpal at the Centre and Lokayuktas in all states within a defined time frame; it also recommended a National Ombudsman for public enterprises and a Citizens' Charter with legal backing.
CAG's three audit functions: (i) Regularity/Compliance audit - checks if funds spent per rules; (ii) Appropriation audit - verifies spending matches Parliament-approved grants; (iii) Performance/Efficiency audit - assesses whether public money achieved intended outcomes; reports of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) are based on CAG reports.
Finance Commission's mandate under Article 280: (a) distribution of net proceeds of taxes; (b) grants-in-aid to states under Article 275; (c) measures to augment States' Consolidated Fund to supplement panchayats and municipalities; (d) any other matter referred by the President - the 15th FC was additionally asked to evaluate the impact of natural disasters, disaster management funds, and performance-based incentives.