Behavioral Theory

4.1 Herbert Simon and Decision-Making Theory

Herbert Simon (1916–2001) revolutionised PA with his 1947 book Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization. Simon won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 for his theory of bounded rationality.

Simon's core arguments:

1. Decision-making is the core of administration: Every administrative act is a decision or part of a decision process; organisations should be studied as decision-making systems.

2. Bounded rationality: Human decision-makers cannot be fully rational because:

   • Information is always incomplete
   • Time for decision is limited
   • Cognitive capacity is finite
   • Alternatives cannot all be explored

3. Satisficing: Instead of optimising (finding the best possible solution), decision-makers "satisfice" — they search until they find a solution that is "good enough" (satisfactory + sufficient).

4. Critique of POSDCORB proverbs: Simon's famous 1946 article "The Proverbs of Administration" (Public Administration Review) attacked Gulick's principles as contradictory:

   • "Specialisation" conflicts with "coordination"
   • "Unity of command" conflicts with "specialisation"
   • "Span of control" conflicts with "hierarchy levels"
     These are value premises, not scientific laws.

5. Fact vs Value distinction: Administrative decisions contain both factual propositions (empirically verifiable) and value propositions (normative). Only factual propositions can be scientifically studied.

4.2 Douglas McGregor — Theory X and Theory Y (1960)

Douglas McGregor (1906–1964) of MIT proposed two contrasting theories of worker motivation in The Human Side of Enterprise (1960).

Dimension	Theory X	Theory Y
View of human nature	Workers are inherently lazy, dislike work	Workers are self-motivated, find work natural
Motivation	External control, coercion, punishment	Self-direction, self-control, commitment
Responsibility	Workers avoid responsibility	Workers seek responsibility
Creativity	Limited — most workers lack imagination	Widely distributed among population
Management style	Authoritarian, directive	Participatory, democratic
Result	Low morale, alienation	High morale, creativity, ownership

Theory Y is the basis of democratic, participatory management and aligns with NPA's emphasis on humanising administration.

4.3 Abraham Maslow — Need Hierarchy (1943)

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed the hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human Motivation" (Psychological Review, 1943):

Level	Need Type	Examples	Relevance
1 (bottom)	Physiological	Food, water, shelter, wages	Basic DA and salary
2	Safety	Job security, insurance, pension	Job guarantees, CGHS
3	Social/Belonging	Friendship, team spirit, acceptance	Team culture, unions
4	Esteem	Recognition, status, prestige	Awards, promotions
5 (top)	Self-actualisation	Creativity, autonomy, growth	Challenging work, autonomy

Key principle: A lower need must be substantially satisfied before the next level becomes motivating. Once met, a need is no longer a motivator.

Application to PA: Government must ensure physiological and safety needs (salary, pension) are met before expecting higher-order commitment from administrators.

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