Major Constitutional Amendments

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Amendment	Year	Key Change
1st Amendment	1951	Added 9th Schedule (land reform laws immune from FR challenge); restricted Article 19(1)(a) for public order/security
4th Amendment	1955	Enlarged state power to acquire property; land reform laws in 9th Schedule
24th Amendment	1971	Parliament explicitly empowered to amend any provision of Constitution including FR (Article 368 amended)
25th Amendment	1971	Article 31C — DPSP 39(b)(c) override Articles 14, 19, 31 in land reform laws
44th Amendment	1978	Right to Property removed from Part III → Article 300A; restored judicial review
86th Amendment	2002	Article 21A — Right to Education (6–14 years) made fundamental right
93rd Amendment	2005	Article 15(5) — OBC reservation in educational institutions including private unaided institutions
97th Amendment	2011	Article 43B — right to form cooperative societies; Part IXB on cooperative societies
103rd Amendment	2019	Articles 15(6), 16(6) — 10% EWS reservation in education and employment

Amendment	Year	Key Change
7th Amendment	1956	States reorganised on linguistic basis; four-tier classification replaced by two (States + Union Territories)
42nd Amendment	1976	Mini-Constitution: Preamble (Socialist, Secular); Fundamental Duties (Art 51A); shifted 5 subjects to Concurrent list; Art 31D anti-national activities; curtailed High Court jurisdiction in election matters
52nd Amendment	1985	Anti-defection law — 10th Schedule added; disqualification for defection from political party
61st Amendment	1989	Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years (Article 326)
73rd Amendment	1992	Panchayati Raj constitutionalised — Part IX, 11th Schedule (29 functions), State Election Commission, State Finance Commission
74th Amendment	1992	Urban Local Bodies — Part IXA, 12th Schedule (18 functions), Municipalities, District Planning Committees
91st Amendment	2003	Council of Ministers limited to 15% of Lok Sabha (or 12 members whichever is greater); defection law tightened
100th Amendment	2015	Exchange of territories with Bangladesh under Land Boundary Agreement
101st Amendment	2016	GST — Article 246A, 279A (GST Council), 269A (inter-state trade levy)
104th Amendment	2019–20	Extended reservation for SC/ST in Lok Sabha and state assemblies (25 years to 2030); ended Anglo-Indian nominated seats

Amendment	Year	Key Change
26th Amendment	1971	Abolished privy purses and privileges of former rulers
39th Amendment	1975	President, VP, PM, Lok Sabha Speaker elections placed outside judicial review (struck down — Indira Gandhi case)
44th Amendment	1978	'Internal disturbance' replaced by 'armed rebellion' as ground for national emergency (Article 352); Cabinet must advise President in writing for emergency proclamation
99th Amendment	2014	National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) — struck down 2015