Women Empowerment in Post-Independence India

5.1 Constitutional Framework

The Constitution of India (1950) was, for its time, one of the most progressive in the world on gender equality:

• Article 14: Equality before law
• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex (and others)
• Article 15(3): State may make special provisions for women and children (enabling affirmative action)
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in public employment
• Article 39: Equal pay for equal work; right to adequate means of livelihood for men and women both
• Article 51A(e): Fundamental duty to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women

5.2 Hindu Code Bills (1955–56)

Ambedkar's Great Achievement

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, as India's first Law Minister, championed codification and reform of Hindu personal law. He submitted comprehensive Hindu Code Bills in 1948 but faced fierce opposition from orthodox members of Parliament including President Rajendra Prasad. Unable to pass the omnibus code, Ambedkar resigned in September 1951.

PM Nehru pushed through the Hindu Code Bills in parts after the 1952 elections:

• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Monogamy required for both sexes; grounds for divorce (including cruelty, desertion); consent in marriage
• Hindu Succession Act, 1956: Daughters got equal inheritance rights in coparcenary property (amended further in 2005)
• Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956: Mother's rights as natural guardian
• Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956: Women's right to adopt

These four acts were described by Ambedkar as "the greatest reform of the Hindu law since Manu" — ending centuries of legal subjugation of women in marriage, property, and guardianship.

5.3 Major Legislation for Women's Rights

Year	Legislation	Key Provision
1955	Hindu Marriage Act	Monogamy; divorce rights for women
1956	Hindu Succession Act	Equal inheritance for daughters
1961	Dowry Prohibition Act	Banned giving/taking dowry
1976	Equal Remuneration Act	Equal pay for equal work (men and women)
1987	Sati (Prevention) Act	Criminalised sati and its glorification
1993	73rd/74th Amendments	33% reservation for women in PRIs and ULBs
2005	Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act	Daughters as coparceners (equal share in ancestral property)
2006	Protection of Women from DV Act	Protection against domestic violence
2013	Criminal Law (Amendment) Act	Broader definition of rape; harsh penalties post-Nirbhaya
2023	Women's Reservation Act	33% reservation in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies

5.4 Women in Power: Political Milestones

• Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1900–1990) — India's first woman ambassador; first woman President of the UN General Assembly (1953)
• Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949) — first woman Governor (United Provinces, 1947)
• Indira Gandhi — first woman Prime Minister (1966); led India through 1971 war; won "Woman of the Millennium" poll by BBC
• Pratibha Patil — first woman President of India (2007–2012)
• Sushma Swaraj — first woman Chief Minister of Delhi (1998); External Affairs Minister (2014–2019)
• Draupadi Murmu — 15th President of India (2022–); first woman from tribal community to be President

5.5 Women's Education and Economic Empowerment

Female Literacy Trend

Female literacy rose from 7.9% (1951) to 65.46% (2011 Census) to approximately 70.3% (NFHS-5, 2019–21). Male literacy (2011): 82.14%. The gender gap has narrowed considerably but persists.

Self-Help Groups (SHGs)

India has over 12 million SHGs linked to bank credit under the NABARD-SHG linkage programme (started 1992). The Kudumbashree model in Kerala (1998) is internationally recognised — over 4.5 million women members organised into 3 tiers of governance. NRLM (National Rural Livelihoods Mission, 2011) linked SHGs to formal credit.

Maternity Benefits

The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 extended paid maternity leave from 12 to 26 weeks for establishments with 10+ employees (applicable to first two children). The Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY, 2017) gives Rs 5,000 cash incentive for first child.

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