Medieval Indian Architecture & Performing Arts

4.1 Regional Temple Architecture (600–1300 CE)

Post-Gupta regional kingdoms each developed distinctive architectural vocabularies.

Chalukya Architecture (6th–8th century, Deccan)

The Chalukyas of Badami and Vatapi built both rock-cut and structural temples at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal.

• Aihole — called "cradle of temple architecture" with 125+ temples
• Pattadakal — UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal (c. 740 CE) — early Dravidian masterpiece with detailed sculptural programme

Pallava Architecture (7th–9th century, Tamil Nadu)

• Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (c. 700–728 CE, UNESCO Heritage) — earliest free-standing stone temple in south India
• Descent of the Ganga (Mahabalipuram) — one of the world's largest bas-relief carvings (27 m × 9 m)

Chola Architecture (9th–13th century, Tamil Nadu)

• Brihadeeswara (Rajarajeshwara) Temple, Thanjavur (1010 CE, Rajaraja I): 66-metre-tall vimana — tallest in India at the time; first of "imperial Chola" scale
• Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (1035 CE, Rajendra I) — followed the Thanjavur model

Chandela Architecture (9th–11th century, Madhya Pradesh)

• Khajuraho temples (built 950–1050 CE, UNESCO Heritage 1986) — apex of Nagara architecture
• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1025 CE): 31-metre shikhara, 872 erotic sculptures — Solanki-Chandela synthesis of sacred geometry and esoteric tantra

4.2 Delhi Sultanate Architecture (1206–1526 CE)

The Delhi Sultanate introduced true arches and domes to Indian architecture, replacing earlier corbelled arches. Key contributions:

• Qutb Minar (Delhi, 1193–1220 CE): 72.5-metre sandstone minaret — tallest minaret in India; built by Qutbuddin Aibak, completed by Iltutmish
• Alai Darwaza (1311, Alauddin Khalji) — first building in India to use true arches of purely Islamic character
• Lodhi Gardens (Delhi): Lodhi dynasty (1451–1526) introduced the double dome, octagonal tombs, and decorative tilework — transitional style before the Mughals
• Adina Mosque (Pandua, Bengal, 1375, Sikandar Shah): largest mosque ever built in the Indian subcontinent by plan area

4.3 Mughal Architecture (1526–1707 CE)

Mughal architecture represents the fullest synthesis of Persian and Indian aesthetics.

Babur to Akbar

• Babur (1526–1530): Built mosques at Panipat, Sambhal, and Ayodhya — no surviving masterpieces
• Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1572, built by widow Bega Begum): first garden tomb (charbagh plan) in India; precursor to Taj Mahal; UNESCO Heritage 1993
• Akbar's Fatehpur Sikri (1571–1585): walled capital combining Rajput and Persian elements; Buland Darwaza (1601) — 54-metre-tall gateway, India's tallest

Shah Jahan — Peak of Mughal Architecture

Shift from red sandstone to white marble:

• Taj Mahal, Agra (1631–1653): mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal; 22 years, 20,000 artisans; four minarets tilt slightly outward to protect main dome; UNESCO Heritage 1983
• Red Fort, Delhi (1638–1648): red sandstone complex on Yamuna bank; seat of Mughal power; UNESCO Heritage 2007
• Jama Masjid, Delhi (1644–1656): India's largest mosque — three domes, two 40-metre minarets; courtyard holds 25,000 worshippers

Aurangzeb

Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad, c. 1660) — often called the "poor man's Taj"; built by Aurangzeb for his wife. Aurangzeb shifted away from architectural grandeur.

4.4 Classical and Folk Performing Arts

Natyashastra — The Foundational Text

The treatise Natyashastra (attributed to Bharata Muni, compiled c. 200 BCE–200 CE), comprising 6,000 verses across 36 chapters, is the foundational text for all Indian performing arts. It codifies nava rasas (nine emotional essences):

• shringara, hasya, karuna, raudra, vira, bhayanaka, bibhatsa, adbhuta, shanta

Eight Classical Dance Styles (Sangeet Natak Akademi, founded 1952)

1. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu): roots in Devadasi tradition of temple dance; codified by Thanjavur Quartet in 19th century; known for geometrical positions and expressional abhinaya.
2. Kathak (North India): derived from kathakas (storytellers); evolved under Mughal patronage with Persian elements (footwork, spins); Lucknow gharana (lyrical) vs Jaipur gharana (vigorous).
3. Odissi (Odisha): based on temple sculptures of Konark Sun Temple; features tribhanga posture (three-point bend of head, torso, and hips).
4. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh): originated as dance-drama by Brahmin males in Kuchipudi village; combines vigorous footwork with expressive storytelling.
5. Kathakali (Kerala): highly stylised dance-drama with elaborate makeup (six face types: green/Pachcha for noble heroes); stories from Mahabharata/Ramayana.
6. Manipuri (Manipur): associated with Vaishnava tradition; gentle, lyrical movements; Ras Lila is the core repertoire.
7. Mohiniyattam (Kerala): "Dance of the enchantress" — graceful, swaying movements; associated with stories of Mohini (Vishnu's female form).
8. Sattriya (Assam): codified by Vaishnavite saint Sankaradeva (15th–16th century); performed in sattra monasteries.

Classical Music — Two Systems

• Hindustani system (North India): absorbed Persian musical elements after the 13th century; organised around ragas and talas; Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) credited with innovations including the khayal form, tabla, and sitar; major gharanas: Agra, Gwalior, Jaipur, Kirana, Patiala.
• Carnatic system (South India): retained closer connection to Vedic chant; codified by the "Trinity of Carnatic Music" — Tyagaraja (1767–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835), and Syama Sastri (1762–1827) — all born in the same generation in Tamil Nadu.

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